Russian Vocabulary about Russian Literature

The following bilingual Russian MiniLesson is meant to build your vocabulary by providing Russian phrases within English text. Hover over the bold Russian to reveal its English translation.

Structure and Classification

Whether you’re studying in Russia or the US, if you’re learning Russian language, you’re probably also reading classic Russian literature. Here is some useful vocabulary for discussing literature.

ЛитератураLiterature can be художественная литератураfiction, or документальная, небеллетристическая литератураnon-fiction. Both of these types of literature can contain a предисловиеpreface, прологprologue, and эпилогepilogue.

There are many different subtypes of художественная литература: фэнтезиfantasy, мистика/ужасыhorror/ghost stories, научная фантастикаscience fiction, криминальная литература/детективcrime/detective, любовные историиromance, юмористический рассказhumorous story, and историческая прозаhistorical fiction.

There are also lots of different types of literary works: романnovel, повестьstory, tale, narrative, рассказshort story, стихотворениеpoem, and антологияanthology, a collection of literary works chosen by the compiler. A format that is not as common in modern fiction is a роман в стихахnovel in verse, such as Pushkin’s Евгений ОнегинEugene Onegin. Every literary work has герои,characters including a главный геройmain character and an отрицательный геройvillain.

A typical структура сюжетаplot structure includes the several parts. First, the экспозицияexposition, представит героев, место и время действия: кто, где, когдаintroduces the characters, place, and time of action: who, where, when. The завязкаoutset presents the первое столкновение конфликтующих сторонfirst conflict between the parties or narrative hook. Then, the перипетии по восходящей rising action, кульминацияclimax, перипетии по нисходящейfalling action, and развязкаresolution develop the story to its финалdenouement, which ties up any lose ends to the story and gives it conclusion. In many литературные произведенияliterary works, символыsymbols are important, and each символ выражаетsymbol represents an idea.

Предзнаменованиеforeshadowing is a литературный приёмliterary device in which the author drops subtle hints about events or developments that will occur later in the story. A common example is a символ бедыsymbol of trouble, such as a черная кошка, перебежавшая дорогуblack cat crossing someone’s path, карканье воронаa crow’s cry, грозаa thunderstorm, or внезапно потухшая свечаa candle that suddenly goes out. 

Literary Devices

Knowing литературные приёмыliterary devices that авторыauthors use can help readers анализировать литературуanalyze literature. One of the most common литературные приёмыliterary devices is a метафораmetaphor (metaphor), a фигура речиfigure of speech that describes an object by stating that it is in some way the same as another otherwise unrelated object. For example: Мой дом — моя крепостьmy home is my castle, or весь мир — театрall the world’s a stage.

A метафора is slightly different from a сравнениеsimile, which is an уподоблениеlikeness that compares two objects by using a comparative word such as какlike or чемthan, or verbs such as напоминаетresembles. For example: Мужик глуп, как свинья, а хитёр, как чёртThe man is as stupid as a pig, but as sly as a devil.

A twist on a метафора or сравнение is персонифика́ция or олицетворениеpersonification, which is representing a non-human entity as if it were human. For example: Плачёт дождьthe rain is crying, ветер поёт песни.the wind is singing songs

When using метонимияmetonymy the author refers to an object or concept not by its own name, but by something associated with that thing or concept. For example: Я три тарелки съелI ate three plates – here, food is implied, although the author never actually says “three plates of food.”

One type of metonymy is синекдохаsynecdoche, which is a term for a part of something that refers to the whole of it, or vice versa. For example: Единственное число вместо множественногоsingular instead of plural: Всё спит — и человек, и зверь, и птицаEverything sleeps: man, and animal, and bird (Gogol).

Аллегорияallegory is a риторический приёмrhetorical device in which characters or events represent a different idea or concept. For example: (from the Bible) Иуда олицетворяет ложь и предательство, а Богородица – красоту и непорочностьJudas personifies lies and betrayal, and the Mother of God represents beauty and purity.

A эвфемизмeuphemism is a generally harmless word or expression used in place of one that might be offensive or unpleasant. For example: более жёсткие методы допросаtougher methods of investigation instead of пыткиtortures. The opposite of an эвфемизм is a дисфеми́змdysphemism, which, instead of using harmless words, uses phrases that are offensive either about the денотатthe object referred to by the linguistic expression or to the audience, or both. For example: сдохнутьto croak instead of умеретьto die.

An аллюзияallusion is a reference to a famous historical or literary person or event. These are very common in Russian газетные заголовкиnewspaper headlines. One recent headline read: Береги кисть смолодуGuard Your Brush from Youth; about young artists in Russia is an allusion to the proverb Береги честь смолодуGuard your honor from youth.

Гиперболаhyperbole involves using преувеличениеexaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech, but should not be taken literally. It is used to evoke strong emotions or impressions. For example: Я говорил это тысячу разI’ve told you that a thousand times or, looking at a large meal, saying that “нам еды на полгода хватит”we have enough food for half a year.

On the other hand, литотаlitotes is a form of преуменьшениеunderstatement that is always deliberate and with the intention of выразительностьemphasis. For example: Лошадь величиной с кошкуa horse as big as a cat, жизнь человека — один мигa person’s life is just a blink.

Перифра́зcircumlocution refers to an ambiguous or roundabout figure of speech, in that the information can have multiple meanings. For example: Люди в белых халатахpeople in white robes to mean doctors or царь зверейthe king of beasts to refer to a lion.

Most people who watch modern TV shows are familiar with сарказмsarcasm, which is also quite common in literature. It can involve using a bitter statement or feigning indifference. For example: Если больной очень хочет жить, врачи бессильныIf the patient wants to live, the doctors are powerless (Faina Ranevskaya).

Художественный образimagery is vivid and descriptive language that is used to add depth to a literary work. Authors use imagery to appeal to human senses and deepen the reader’s understanding of the work. Imagery sometimes uses metaphors, and strives to engage all the reader’s senses.

Иро́нияirony is a contrast or inconsistency between what the reader expects from a situation and what actually happens. Sometimes similes or metaphors are used to state the opposite of the truth, for example: Ну ты храбрецHow brave you are!! to refer to a coward, or умён-умёнyou are so clever for an idiot.

Антитезаjuxtaposition is comparing two things that are not related to each other in order to show their differences. For example: Кто был ничем, тот станет всемSomeone who was nobody, became important.

Poetry

Аллитерацияalliteration is repeating the same or similar sounds, usually at the beginning or in the middle of multiple words. Alliteration is used largely in поэзияpoetry, пословицыproverbs, поговорки sayings, and скороговоркиtongue-twisters.

For example:

Выходила к ним горилла,
Им горилла говорила
Говорила им горилла,
Приговаривала.

(A gorilla went to them,
The gorilla told them,
The gorilla told them,
Repeated.)
– K. Chukovsky, Barmalei

When analyzing поэзия, there are a few other things to consider in addition to литературные приёмыliterary devices, for instance, there are various стихотворные размерыpoetic meters that a поэтpoet can use: односложныйone-syllable, двусложныйdisyllabic, трехсложныйtrisyllabic, пятисложныйpentameter. Here are some of the самые распространенныеmost common meters:

1. Хорейtrochee or choree: a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one:

Буря мглою небо кроет
Вихри снежные крутя

– A. Pushkin

2. Ямбiamb: the opposite of a хорей, this consists of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable:

Мой дядя самых честных правил,
Когда не в шутку занемог,
Он уважать себя заставил
И лучше выдумать не мог.

– A. Pushkin

3. Анапестanapest, also called antidactylus: two short syllables followed by a long one:

О, весна без конца и без краю –
Без конца и без краю мечта!
Узнаю тебя, жизнь! Принимаю!
И приветствую звоном щита!

– A. Blok

4. Амфибра́хийamphibrach: a long syllable between two short syllables:

Не вeтер бушует над бором,
Не с гор побежали ручьи –
Мороз-воевода дозором
Обходит владенья свои.

– N. Nekrasov

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